Sovereignty at the maritime border : when France “interprets” the conventions

De facto > Issue 32

Fran­çais

Camille Martel and Arnaud Banos, geographers

In the central Mediterranean, the obligation to provide assistance to vessels attempting to cross to Europe has been sidestepped in recent years by externalizing responsibility for rescue to a third country : Libya. In the English channel, on the other hand, a policy of systematic assistance to vessels trying to reach the British coast serves to bolster French sovereignty.

When dealing with issues of migra­tion by sea, states are required to comply with the conven­tions they have signed, regar­ding both refu­gees’ rights and inter­na­tional mari­time law. A compa­rison of the French rescue services in the Channel and the Euro­pean services opera­ting in the central Medi­ter­ra­nean, shows that the Euro­pean nations exer­cise their sove­rei­gnty at the EU’s external borders via their capa­city not only to fulfil, but also to sidestep the obli­ga­tions laid down in mari­time law.

The duty to provide assistance at sea

In the English Channel, as in the Medi­ter­ra­nean, the small vessels that attempt to cross mari­time borders are gene­rally over­loaded and unfit for navi­ga­tion, and, of course, never in compliance with Divi­sion 240, a set of French rules listing the safety equip­ment to be carried on board at different distances from a safe haven.^[1]See the regu­la­tory text : https://​www​.mer​.gouv​.fr/​l​e​s​-​d​i​v​i​s​i​o​n​s​-​s​e​c​u​r​i​t​e​-​p​l​a​isance. The captain of a ship cros­sing their route will there­fore consider them to be in distress,^[2]Order of 6 May 2019 repla­cing order of 23 November 1987 on the safety of seagoing vessels (Divi­sion 240). In prac­tice, this prin­ciple is not always respected (an emble­matic example can be found in the Forensic Ocea­no­graphy report on the “Left-to-die Boat”. URL : … Lire la suite for several reasons.

The time-honoured duty to provide assis­tance at sea to persons in distress stems from a tradi­tion of soli­da­rity among sailors working in a hostile and unpre­dic­table envi­ron­ment. Well before the earliest inter­na­tional conven­tions, the obli­ga­tion to rescue persons in distress was first codi­fied in French law in the late 17th century, with the Great Ordi­nance of Marine of August 1681.^[3]For a brief history : https://​www​.legis​plai​sance​.fr/​2​0​2​0​/​0​7​/​2​7​/​l​e​n​c​a​d​r​e​m​e​n​t​-​j​u​r​i​d​i​q​u​e​-​d​u​-​s​a​u​v​e​t​a​g​e​-​e​n-mer/. It still exists today in a general form : the French penal code sanc­tions the failure to assist a person in danger, either on land or at sea (Article 223–6).

“Well before the earliest international conventions, the obligation to provide assistance at sea was first codified in French law in the late 17th century, with the great ordinance of marine of august 1681.”

Camille Martel and Arnaud Banos, geographers

This prin­ciple was codi­fied in the 20th century and its condi­tions of imple­men­ta­tion defined at inter­na­tional level. The Brus­sels Conven­tion of 1910 on Assis­tance and Salvage at Sea was the first to lay down the obli­ga­tion to provide assis­tance at sea. The Inter­na­tional Mari­time Orga­ni­za­tion (IMO),^[4]See the IMO website : https://​www​.imo​.org/​e​n​/​A​b​o​u​t​/​P​a​g​e​s​/​D​e​f​a​u​l​t.aspx. a specia­lized agency of the United Nations, later took the issue of mari­time safety in hand by leading to the 1974 Inter­na­tional Conven­tion for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).^[5]See the conven­tion : https://​www​.imo​.org/​e​n​/​A​b​o​u​t​/​C​o​n​v​e​n​t​i​o​n​s​/​P​a​g​e​s​/​I​n​t​e​r​n​a​t​i​o​n​a​l​-​C​o​n​v​e​n​t​i​o​n​-​f​o​r​-​t​h​e​-​S​a​f​e​t​y​-​o​f​-​L​i​f​e​-​a​t​-​S​e​a​-​(​S​O​L​A​S​)​,​-​1​9​7​4.aspx This Conven­tion, which came into force in 1980, defines the proce­dures to be followed when respon­ding to situa­tions of distress. In addi­tion, accor­ding to the Inter­na­tional Conven­tion on Mari­time Search and Rescue (SAR),^[6]See the text of the Conven­tion : https://​www​.imo​.org/​e​n​/​a​b​o​u​t​/​C​o​n​v​e​n​t​i​o​n​s​/​P​a​g​e​s​/​I​n​t​e​r​n​a​t​i​o​n​a​l​-​C​o​n​v​e​n​t​i​o​n​-​o​n​-​M​a​r​i​t​i​m​e​-​S​e​a​r​c​h​-​a​n​d​-​R​e​s​c​u​e​-​(​S​A​R​).aspx. which came into force in 1985, all persons in distress must receive assis­tance, regard­less of their natio­na­lity or status. In parallel, the 1982 UN Conven­tion on the Law of the Sea also codi­fies the obli­ga­tion for all ship’s captains to assist persons in distress (Montego Bay Conven­tion).^[7]See the text of the Conven­tion : https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI%1e6&chapter=21&Temp=mtdsg3&clang=_en.

The Channel, an ideal theatre for asserting sovereignty

A veri­table mari­time highway and a major world merchant ship­ping route, the English Channel has witnessed a growing traffic^[8]Odile Senel­lart, “52 000 migrants ont tenté de traverser la Manche en 2021”, France Bleu Nord, 20 Jan. 2022. URL : https://www.francebleu.fr/infos/international/52–000-migrants-ont-tente-de-traverserla-manche-en-2021–1642690863. of small, make­shift and unsea­worthy vessels since 2018. Many find them­selves in distress, and several inci­dents with substan­tial loss of life have occurred in recent years.^[9]Michel Agier, “Ces fron­tières qui rendent fous et tuent”, Libé­ra­tion, 25 Nov. 2021. URL : https://​www​.libe​ra​tion​.fr/​i​d​e​e​s​-​e​t​-​d​e​b​a​t​s​/​t​r​i​b​u​n​e​s​/​c​e​s​-​f​r​o​n​t​i​e​r​e​s​-​q​u​i​-​r​e​n​d​e​n​t​-​f​o​u​-​e​t​-​q​u​i​-​t​u​e​n​t​-​2​0​2​1​1​1​2​5​_​M​X​2​L​P​W​L​C​E​F​H​L​D​D​O​T​M​L​3​R​Y​ICQGU/.

Inter­ven­tions in French terri­to­rial waters, coor­di­nated by the CROSS Gris-Nez,^[10]The missions of the Centres régio­naux opéra­tion­nels de surveillance et de sauve­tage (CROSS) include the orga­ni­za­tion and coor­di­na­tion of search and rescue opera­tions in defined mari­time zones. The French equi­va­lents of the Mari­time Rescue Coor­di­na­tion Centres (MRCC), they were set up under the SAR Conven­tion. The ongoing inquiry … Lire la suite are limited – subject to more in-depth assess­ment of the risks in the zone concerned – to boats whose passen­gers require assis­tance. This remains the case despite insistent pleas from the UK Minister of the Interior for greater efforts by France to inter­cept these vessels at sea.^[11]See this article by Jack Walters, “‘Go further and faster’ Priti Patel demands France must inter­cept all Channel migrants”, Express, 15 Nov. 2021. URL : https://​www​.express​.co​.uk/​n​e​w​s​/​u​k​/​1​5​2​1​3​8​8​/​p​r​i​t​i​-​p​a​t​e​l​l​a​t​e​s​t​-​n​e​w​s​-​h​o​m​e​-​s​e​c​r​e​t​a​r​y​-​d​e​m​a​n​d​-​w​a​r​n​f​r​a​n​c​e​-​i​n​t​e​r​c​e​p​t​-​c​h​a​n​n​e​l​-​m​i​g​r​a​n​ts-ont.

In a context of intense media scru­tiny, France makes a public show of its scru­pu­lous respect for the obli­ga­tions of mari­time law. In response to the “aggres­sive” propo­sals of its neigh­bour,^[12]See this article in Cour­rier Inter­na­tional, “Migrants. Traver­sées de la Manche : Londres accuse la France pour préserver l’image du Brexit”, 24 Nov. 2021. URL : https://​www​.cour​rie​rin​ter​na​tional​.com/​a​r​t​i​c​l​e​/​m​i​g​r​a​n​t​s​-​t​r​a​v​e​r​s​e​e​s​-​d​e​-​l​a​-​m​a​n​c​h​e​-​l​o​n​d​r​e​s​-​a​c​c​u​s​e​-​l​a​-​f​r​a​n​c​e​-​p​o​u​r​-​p​r​e​s​e​r​v​e​r​-​l​i​m​a​g​e​-​d​u​-​brexit. solely concerned with its stra­tegy of secu­ring (or even closing) its border, it takes every oppor­tu­nity to produce a virtuous discourse on the need to comply with the law of the sea.^[13]See this article in the inter­na­tional pages of Le Pari­sien, “Migrants : Londres veut refouler en mer les bateaux traver­sant la Manche”, 9 Sept. 2021. URL : https://www.leparisien.fr/international/migrants-londres-veut-refouler-en-mer-les-bateaux-traversant-la-manche-09–09-2021-YOX6CEKEWVEZVALK7HIRTNEKAI.php. By quoting the provi­sions of mari­time law to justify its reluc­tance to inter­cept vessels attemp­ting to cross the Channel, France is mani­fes­ting its refusal to be treated as a sub-contractor for the poli­cing of the British border. At the same time, via this compliance with inter­na­tional conven­tions, France is asser­ting its sovereignty.

Generalized sub-contracting in the Mediterranean

Exter­na­li­za­tion^[14]See V. Moreno-Lax & M. Lemberg-Pedersen, “Border-induced displa­ce­ment : The ethical and legal impli­ca­tions of distance-crea­tion through exter­na­li­za­tion”, Ques­tions of Inter­na­tional Law, 28 Feb. 2019. URL : … Lire la suite of border controls has been part of the Euro­pean Union’s foreign policy for many years,^[15]Attested by a leaked internal docu­ment of the Euro­pean Commis­sion entitled “Update on State of Play of External Coope­ra­tion in the Field of Migra­tion Policy” dated 14 January 2022. Avai­lable on the Migra­tion Control website. URL : … Lire la suite with little sign of protest from the French poli­tical class. In the case of Libya, for example, bila­teral agree­ments have been concluded for a system enabling Libyan ships to inter­cept boats leaving the country (see the Maps feature in this issue). These agree­ments provide a means for the EU to circumvent the non-refou­le­ment obli­ga­tion laid down in the 2012 Hirsi Jamaa ruling of the Euro­pean Court of Human Rights.^[16]See this article on the Amnesty Inter­na­tional website : “Italie. Un arrêt ‘histo­rique’ de la cour euro­péenne défend les droits des migrants”, 23 Feb. 2012. URL : https://​www​.amnesty​.be/​i​n​f​o​s​/​a​c​t​u​a​l​i​t​e​s​/​a​r​t​i​c​l​e​/​i​t​a​l​i​e​-​u​n​-​a​r​r​e​t​-​h​i​s​t​o​r​i​q​u​e​-de-la. Accor­ding to the Court, this obli­ga­tion extends to all ships under the juris­dic­tion of Euro­pean coun­tries that rescue boats in distress.

In prac­tice, the with­drawal of Euro­pean state mari­time rescue resources in the Central Medi­ter­ra­nean took place in parallel with measures to support the crea­tion of a Libyan search and rescue (SAR) zone and a coast­guard equipped by the EU. The Euro­pean agency Frontex provides regular air support [Le Monde, October 2021 ; Libé­ration, April 2021],^[17]Arthur Carpen­tier & Marceau Breton­nier, “Migrants : enquête sur le rôle de l’Europe dans le piège libyen”, Le Monde, 31 Oct. 2021. URL : https://​www​.lemonde​.fr/​i​n​t​e​r​n​a​t​i​o​n​a​l​/​v​i​d​e​o​/​2​0​2​1​/​1​0​/​3​1​/​m​i​g​r​a​n​t​s​-​e​n​q​u​e​t​e​-​s​u​r​-​l​e​-​r​o​l​e​-​d​e​-​l​-​e​u​r​o​p​e​-​d​a​n​s​-​l​e​-​p​i​e​g​e​-​l​i​b​y​e​n​_​6​1​0​0​4​7​5​_​3​2​1​0.html ; Tomas Statius, “Migrants. Le jeu trouble de … Lire la suite although it offi­cially denies being in direct contact with the Libyan autho­ri­ties. Yet today, the dange­rous (even criminal) prac­tices of the Libyan coast­guard are widely docu­mented,^[18]United Nations, “Lethal Disre­gard”. Search and rescue and the protec­tion of migrants in the central Medi­ter­ra­nean Sea, 2021. URL : https://​www​.ohchr​.org/​s​i​t​e​s​/​d​e​f​a​u​l​t​/​f​i​l​e​s​/​D​o​c​u​m​e​n​t​s​/​I​s​s​u​e​s​/​M​i​g​r​a​t​i​o​n​/​O​H​C​H​R​-​t​h​e​m​a​t​i​c​-​r​e​p​o​r​t​-​S​A​R​-​p​r​o​t​e​c​t​i​o​n​-​a​t​-​s​ea.pdf. like those in the country’s migrant deten­tion centres (on this ques­tion, see our article publi­shed in issue 20 of De facto): accor­ding to a recent UN mission, what happens there “may amount to crimes against huma­nity”.^[19]“Libye : des crimes contre l’humanité auraient été commis dans les prisons et contre les migrants”, Onu Info, 4 Oct. 2021. URL : https://​news​.un​.org/​f​r​/​s​t​o​r​y​/​2​0​2​1​/​1​0​/​1​105392.

Conclusion

Accor­ding to Gérald Darmanin, the French Minister of the Interior, “at sea, saving human lives takes prece­dence over consi­de­ra­tions of natio­na­lity, status and migra­tion policy, in strict compliance with inter­na­tional mari­time law that lays down the rules for search and rescue at sea”.^[20]See this article in Le Pari­sien, “Migrants : Londres veut refouler en mer les bateaux traver­sant la Manche”, 9 Sept. 2021. URL : https://www.leparisien.fr/international/migrants-londres-veut-refouler-en-mer-les-bateaux-traversant-la-manche-09–09-2021-YOX6CEKEWVEZVALK7HIRTNEKAI.php. This virtuous posi­tio­ning, which serves the inter­ests of France in affir­ming its sove­rei­gnty in the English Channel, is by no means reflected in the long­stan­ding policy of the Euro­pean Union in the Central Medi­ter­ra­nean where, since the early 2000s, more than 2,000 people have perished each year in their attempts to cross the sea. From this point of view, the English Channel has so far been a zone of excep­tion,^[21]See Maurice Sterl, “A Fleet of Medi­ter­ra­nean Border Huma­ni­ta­rians”, Anti­pode, 50(3), June 2018. DOI : 10.1111/anti.12320 ; URL : https://​onli​ne​li​brary​.wiley​.com/​d​o​i​/​a​b​s​/​1​0​.​1​1​1​1​/​a​n​t​i​.12320. where those gene­rally and unhe­si­ta­tingly labelled as “migrants” suddenly become poten­tial “ship­wre­cked persons” who will be rescued if they find them­selves in distress. And while sea rescue in inter­na­tional border zones remains a legal obli­ga­tion, degrees of compliance are variable, subject to the poli­tics of national sove­rei­gnty.^[22]See Özgün E. Topak, “The Biopo­li­tical Border in Prac­tice : Surveillance and Death at the Greece-Turkey Border zones” Envi­ron­ment and Plan­ning D : Society and Space, 32(5), 2014, pp. 815–833. DOI : 10.1068/d13031p ; URL : https://​jour​nals​.sagepub​.com/​d​o​i​/​1​0​.​1​0​6​8​/​d​13031p.

About the authors

Camille Martel is a geography PhD student at the Univer­sité Le Havre Normandie within the Iden­tité et Diffé­ren­cia­tion de l’Espace, de l’Environnement et des Sociétés (UMR 6266 CNRS, Univer­sité Le Havre Normandie) laboratory.

Arnaud Banos is a research director at the CNRS. He is affi­liated to the Iden­tité et Diffé­ren­cia­tion de l’Espace, de l’Environnement et des Sociétés (UMR 6266 CNRS, Univer­sité Le Havre Normandie) labo­ra­tory. He is a CI Migra­tion fellow.

Cite the article

Camille Martel & Arnaud Banos, “Sove­rei­gnty at the mari­time border : when France “inter­prets” the conven­tions” in : Emeline Zoug­bédé, Michel Agier & Ségo­lène Barbou des Places (eds.), Feature “If France were to with­draw from inter­na­tional conven­tions?” De facto [online], 32 | March 2022. URL : https://www.icmigrations.cnrs.fr/en/2022/11/07/defacto-032–06/

Republication

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